Wednesday, April 27, 2011

Pharmacology.

Pharmacology

Encompasses the study of the effects of drugs, their therapeutic efficacy, and their fate in the body. When the word gained currency in the 1680s, it also included the art of preparing drugs.

Throughout the previous two centuries, physicians and apothecaries had been adding to and modifying the ancient humoral pharmacological principles codified in herbals, practical guides to botanical identification that also assessed the therapeutic value of plants. This format declined after 1640 as pharmacopoeias began to establish standards for drug preparation and dosage and as botanists began to describe plants in nonmedical contexts.

Many of the new pharmacological concepts originated with Paracelsus (ca. 1493– 1541). He argued that disease represents not imbalances among the classic four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) but disturbed interactions among their corresponding elements (air, water, fire, and earth) and his tria prima, the saline, mercurial, and sulfurous principles he said resided in all matter, including plants. This permitted him, for example, to correct putative abnormal acid-base balances with antacid and antalkaline drugs.

In contrast to traditional medicines compounded of many ingredients, Paracelsus favored drugs made of single substances. For instance, he introduced metallic mercury, tartar emetic (antimony potassium tartrate), and ether, the latter because, he said, it allayed pain and induced sleep in his experiments with chickens. Although he also described curious treatments, such as a salve he claimed would cure a wound when applied to the weapon that had caused the injury, such magical remedies were widely discussed, but they never gained the widespread professional acceptance accorded his simpler remedies, some of which survived into the nineteenth century.

The chemical approach to therapy helped change pharmacological thinking largely because Paracelsus demonstrated the value of a close alliance between medicine and chemistry through the latter’s value in preparing effective and safe remedies, such as the chemically purified distilled oils he developed. This prompted European universities to include chemistry courses within their medical curricula, beginning at Marburg, where Johannes Hartmann (1568–1631) was appointed professor of chymiatria (chemical medicine) in 1609. However, his curriculum was not all rational chemistry; it also included the preparation of the wound salve and alchemically derived impossibilities such as “potable gold.”

Paracelsus had argued that medical cures were properly assessed by observation, not by reliance on theory alone. Investigators such as Robert Boyle (1627–1691) and Francesco Redi (1626–1697) agreed on the appropriateness of experimental trials of new medicines and on the value of animals for testing new drugs, but such methods were not widely accepted for more than 250 years.

Those who explicitly rejected Paracelsian concepts included Johann Joachim Becher (1635–1682), who substituted three putative earths for the tria prima, and Georg Ernst Stahl (1660–1734) repudiated iatrochemistry altogether. He gave the name phlogiston to Becher’s terra pinguis, an aspect of combustibility, and promoted antiphlogistic remedies to treat fevers, the most common illnesses of the time. Friedrich Hoffman (1660–1742) favored iatromechanical principles predicated on the assumption that motion is the primary principle of life. He argued that drugs should either strengthen weak fibers in the body or relax excessively rigid fibers.

Followers of Paracelsus contributed other new chemical ideas to pharmacology. Johannes Baptista van Helmont (1579–1644) developed the concept of therapeutic gases, primarily carbon dioxide. Franciscus Sylvius (Franz de la BoĆ«, 1614–1672) systematized Paracelsus’s concepts, focusing increased attention on antacid and antalkaline remedies, while Boyle described chemical indicators of acidity and alkalinity. Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604–1670) developed chemical remedies, such as sodium chloride and magnesium sulfate, that fit within humoral, chemical, and antiphlogistic therapeutic frameworks simultaneously, as did Thomas Sydenham’s (1624–1689) stronger—and cheaper—opium preparation. Although most physicians came to recognize the medical value of the new chemicals, they continued to prescribe botanical drugs while slowly rejecting complex polypharmaceuticals from magical and alchemical traditions. Trade with the East and West Indies led to the introduction of exotic new drugs, especially the American products publicized by Nicolas Monardes (1493–1588). However, most American drugs offered nothing more than those ensconced in the humoral and chemical traditions, and only a few entered European herbals and pharmacopoeias. They included ipecac and cinchona (or Peruvian bark), first used for treating malaria (it is now known to contain quinine) and then for virtually all fevers. Guaiac, sassafras, and sarsaparilla were promoted for treating syphilis, which Europeans believed had been imported from the New World and was, therefore, amenable to treatment with drugs from that area, just as Paracelsus believed that German plants were the best remedies for the diseases of German people.

Friday, October 29, 2010

Game Review Of Rock Band 3


Three years after Rock Band blazed a new trail in the rhythm game genre, Rock Band 3 takes the art of living-room rock to new heights. A new keyboard peripheral joins guitars, drums, and microphones, providing a great new way to play along. And if you want to take your musical skills beyond the fake plastic stage, the new Pro modes and instrument training sessions can help you on your way. Though these impressive instructive modes require pricey extra peripherals, you don't need to pay a premium to enjoy Rock Band 3. It's easier than ever to have an awesome time playing your plastic instruments and singing your heart out, thanks to the ingenious menus, the rewarding goal system, and the diverse 83-song set list. Rock Band 3 builds on all the things that made its predecessors great and introduces some engrossing new elements, making it the most robust rhythm game on consoles today.

One of the best ways to enjoy Rock Band 3 is the same way you've been enjoying Rock Band for years--get a bunch of friends together and rock out using two guitars, a drum set, and up to three microphones (thanks to the inclusion of vocal harmonies). Though only four profiles can be signed in at once, up to seven people can play at the same time using the aforementioned instruments and the new keyboard peripheral. Playing songs in Quickplay is an easy way to get things rocking, and it's now even easier thanks to new song sorting options, built-in setlists from developer Harmonix, and the ability to download user-created setlists. You can also take on one of the many Road Challenges, which are like segmented versions of the World Tour that appeared in previous Rock Band games. These short tours string together a few setlists and feature bonus goals that give you extra credit for feats like deploying overdrive or accumulating long note streaks. Road Challenges nicely harness the progression-oriented appeal of a career mode and neatly avoid the rigidity of previous World Tours, creating a great blend of structure and flexibility.

Regardless of which mode you are playing, your performance earns you progress toward a bevy of overarching goals that reward you for a wide variety of accomplishments. Some are simple, like visiting the downloadable music store, and others are more challenging, like playing a 500-note streak. Some can be accomplished in the span of one song (hit 100 percent of the notes in a solo), while others take much longer (earn a career score of 5 million points). Completing goals can earn you fans for your band and gear for your character, as well as bragging rights on the online leaderboards. Almost every performance can earn you some sort of progress, and it's pleasantly satisfying to finish a setlist and watch the fans roll in.

Aside from refining and improving the familiar Rock Band experience, Rock Band 3 supports a new instrument peripheral to bolster your band. The sold-separately keyboard ($79.99, or in a bundle with the game for $129.99) gives you a chance to tickle the ivories along with some excellent songs and offers two distinct ways to play. In straightforward Keys mode, you use only five white keys, and the note highway looks just like that of a guitar or bass. This mode is a great way to cut loose on the keyboard, especially if you've attached a strap in order to rock out keytar-style. The one-button-per-finger ratio also makes it arguably the easiest instrumental entry point into the series for those who haven't cut their teeth on a guitar or drum set.


If you want to take on a more serious challenge, you can also play the keyboard in Pro mode. Here, you use both white and black keys across the 25-key peripheral to play parts that more closely mimic what it is like to actually play a given song. Just like when you play another instrument, Pro Keys has a difficulty scale that allows you to ease into it. There are also extensive lessons that cater to all levels of players, teaching things ranging from simple scales all the way up through chords and arpeggios. The lessons are clearly and logically delivered, offering novice keyboardists plenty of room to work on their skills. Those with experience playing actual keyboards or pianos are also advised to check out some of the lessons in order to familiarize themselves with the way Rock Band 3 handles the instrument. Though the vertically scrolling note highway does a good job of visually representing the notes, it is unlike any other music reading experience you are likely to have had. Furthermore, you may have to resist your hand positioning instincts in order to get comfortable with the keyboard. Yet though Pro Keys probably won't earn you a spot in a real band, it cultivates dexterity and musical sensibility in a concrete, transferrable way that was previously accessible only for Rock Band drummers. And once you get the hang of it, it makes rocking out feel a whole lot cooler.

There is also a Pro Drums mode that incorporates cymbals that you can attach to your drum set. These offer the opportunity to play the already-legit drums in a more engaging, challenging, and legitimate way, but you have to buy the cymbals ($39.99) if you want to indulge your inner Neil Peart. The peripheral required for Pro Guitar also involves a hefty additional investment, but the excellent training lessons will help teach you dexterity and core concepts that apply to real-world guitar playing. Actual guitarists face a similar learning curve to actual keyboardists because they must get accustomed to reading musical notation the Rock Band 3 way and, at least until the compatible stringed guitar is released, contend with a not-quite-the-real-thing peripheral. The expensive guitar peripheral ($149.99) replaces strings with more than 100 tiny plastic buttons, and it can be tricky to find your place in the sea of little nubs. Still, it allows you to play Rock Band using actual guitar fingerings, and the note highway does an impressive job of communicating a lot of information in an intelligible way.

Though these Pro modes come with an extra cover charge, they offer something truly unique in the realm of rhythm games: a way to turn time spent with Rock Band into skills that can help you learn to play an actual instrument. Practicing chords over and over again may not be as unabashedly fun as ripping into an intense solo with only five fret buttons to worry about, but the thrill of building some musical skills definitely provides some strong satisfaction. Yet even if you don't invest in the brave new world of Pro mode, Rock Band 3 is still an excellent game that provides the best platform yet for plastic living-room rock. A slick menu system ties it all together, making it easy to swap around difficulty levels, instruments, and even profiles without having to back out to the main menu. It seamlessly incorporates all your downloaded or imported tracks, and pipes in leaderboard info to fuel the competitive fire within. Rock Band 3 not only introduces new and exciting things to the world of rhythm games, but it does almost everything better than those that have come before it. When it comes to accessible, inventive, and immensely entertaining music video games, nobody does it better than Rock Band 3.

The Bowl Of Hygeia

DERIVATION

The “Bowl of Hygeia” symbol is the most widely recognized international symbol of pharmacy. In Greek mythology, Hygeia was the daughter and assistant of Aesculapius the God of Medicine and Healing. Hygeia's classical symbol was a bowl containing a medicinal potion with the serpent of Wisdom (or guardianship) partaking it. This is the same serpent of Wisdom, which appears on the caduceus, the staff of Aesculapius, which is the symbol of medicine.

The Bowl of Hygeia

The pharmacy profession has used numerous symbols over the past centuries. These symbols include, but are not limited to, the mortar and pestle, the Rx sign, various alchemical symbols, the show globe, the green cross, the salamander, "A" for apothecary (Apotheke), and the Bowl of Hygeia. The Bowl of Hygeia is the most widely recognized international symbol for the profession of pharmacy today. Several sources indicate that the symbol may have been used as an emblem of St. John dating back to first century a.d. This is based on the legend that a trophy containing poison was offered to the apostle. There is also speculation that the Bowl of Hygeia was used as a symbol for the apothecaries of Italy in 1222, since they used this emblem during the celebration of the 700th anniversary of the founding of the University of Padua . However, no proof has been found to substantiate either of these claims. We do know that the Bowl of Hygeia was associated with pharmacy as early as 1796, when the symbol was used on a coin minted for the Parisian Society of Pharmacy.

The Bowl of Hygeia originated from Greek mythology and is universally depicted as a snake wrapped in one manner or another around a bowl. Aesculapius (pronounced Es-Kah-Lay-Pi-Ous and sometimes spelled Asklepios) was the Greek god of medicine and healing. He was the son of Apollo, who was the son of Zeus. Zeus became afraid that Aesculapius would render all men immortal because of his healing power, so he killed him with a thunderbolt. Temples were built for Aesculapius, and harmless serpents were found inside. These serpents appeared dead because they were stiff. However, when picked up and dropped, they slithered away. The people at that time thought the serpents were brought back to life by the healing powers of Aesculapius, which ultimately caused them to become the symbol of healing. Hygeia, the daughter of Aesculapius and the goddess of health, is usually depicted with a serpent around her arm and a bowl in her hand because she tended to the temples containing these snakes.

We have since separated the serpent and the bowl from Hygeia herself, and this has become the internationally recognized symbol of pharmacy. Now the bowl represents a medicinal potion, and the snake represents healing. Healing through medicine is precisely why pharmacy has adopted the Bowl of Hygeia symbol. The American Pharmaceutical Association adopted the Bowl of Hygeia as its symbol to represent the pharmacy profession in 1964.

A Pharmacist

A Pharmacist

Being a pharmacist is much harder than what you probably thought it was.

Pharmacists in a hospital have many, many responsibilities. They must be very
careful that they have measured the medication correctly, because one little
mistake can be potentially fatal.

Pharmacists must know what many of the medications do, and if there are any side

effects and incompatibilities with other medications the patient might be on.
For example, a person might be taking a medication for another problem, and if
the physician and pharmacist don't notice that condition, the prescribed
medication might cause a deadly interaction. This does not happen with all
drugs, but it happens with a few, and you certainly don't want a result like
that. The pharmacist must also make sure that the patient does not have any
allergies against that type of medication.

Pharmacists should also know generic brands of medication that might save the

patient's money. They must know any differences between the brand name and the
generic name, such as drug interactions, side effects, and how it should be
taken.

Some responsibilities of the pharmacist include making intravenous solutions and

operating the TPN, which takes intravenous solutions and adds vitamins such as
amino acids. They also refill storage bins in the Emergency Room, where doctors
can get them if a patient needs them immediately.

Charles Rudolph Walgreen Sr. Is the founder of Walgreens. When he was twenty,
he borrowed twenty dollars, and moved from Dixon, Illinois to Chicago.
Throughout pharmacy school, he worked for pharmacies in the day and went to
school at night. When the United States went to War with Spain in 1898,
Walgreen was enlisted as a private. There were many diseases in Cuba, and
Walgreen fell sick. The doctor was so sure that Walgreen was going to die, that
he put Walgreen's name on the casualty list, and newspapers told of his death!